Minerals make up a small amount of the diet for the beef animal. However, that does not undermine their importance. Minerals are required for metabolism, immunity, reproduction, and growth (Greene, 2000). Both under- and over-supplementing minerals can be costly to animal performance.
Beef cattle require at least seventeen minerals in their diet. These minerals are divided into two groups based on the amount required (NASEM, 2016). The macrominerals beef cattle need are measured in grams per day and include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfur. The amount of micro or trace minerals required by beef cattle are measured in milligrams or micrograms per day and include copper, zinc, manganese, selenium, iron, cobalt, and iodine. Macromineral requirements are typically expressed as a percentage of the cattle’s dry matter diet, while trace minerals are expressed in parts per million (ppm). The mineral requirements of beef cattle are influenced by their age, body weight, sex, stage of production (growth, gestation, or lactation), and diet composition (Greene, 2000). Additionally, interactions among minerals, forage species, soil mineral concentrations, water quality, and mineral bioavailability can alter the amount of mineral required.
MACROMINERALS
Calcium and Phosphorus
Calcium and phosphorus are fundamental macro minerals required for normal skeletal development, muscle contraction, and milk production in beef cattle. Approximately 98% of the calcium and about 80% of the phosphorus in the body of beef cattle are stored in the skeleton (NASEM, 2016). Bone serves as the major mineral reservoir, but when intake is chronically inadequate, the cattle’s body draws from this reserve, which can compromise bone strength and long-term animal productivity.
Deficiencies in either calcium or phosphorus can lead to rickets in young animals, reduced growth, impaired bone strength, and overall decreased animal performance. Maintaining the correct calcium-to-phosphorus ratio is critical for proper utilization of both minerals. For most beef cattle, an ideal ratio ranges from about 1.5:1 to 2:1. Ratios outside this range reduce absorption efficiency and can contribute to metabolic problems. Forages generally supply adequate calcium (Ca), but are typically deficient in phosphorus (P) (McDowell, 2003). Conversely, cereal grains are higher in phosphorus than forages (NASEM, 2016). This means grain- or concentrate-based diets often require supplemental calcium to maintain an appropriate Ca:P ratio.
Sodium and Chloride
Sodium and chloride are electrolytes that play a key role in maintaining water balance and pH of body fluids such as blood (Underwood & Suttle, 1999). Sodium and chloride beef cattle requirements are commonly expressed as a salt requirement. Growing and gestating beef cattle require 0.06%–0.08% of diet dry-matter (DM) in sodium. Lactating cattle require 0.10% in of their diet dry-matter in sodium (NASEM, 2016). Cattle naturally crave sodium and will usually consume more salt than required when it is offered free choice. Sodium is commonly deficient in forages and cereal grains and therefore should be regularly provided.
Potassium and Magnesium
Potassium is another electrolyte involved in maintaining water balance and pH of body fluids (Underwood & Suttle, 1999). Growing and gestating beef cattle require 0.6% of their diet DM in potassium. Lactating cattle require 0.7% potassium (NASEM, 2016). Potassium is generally abundant in lush, growing forages, but can leach from forages overtime (Greene, 2000). Thus, stockpiled forages and some hay can be low in potassium.
Magnesium is involved in enzyme activation, energy metabolism, and nervous system function. Growing cattle require 0.10%, gestating cows require 0.12%, and lactating cows require 0.20% of their diet DM in magnesium (NASEM, 2016). High concentrations of potassium can interfere with magnesium absorption in the rumen, resulting in grass tetany (Greene et al., 1983). This is predominantly a concern in early spring when cattle are grazing lush, rapidly growing forages. Low magnesium intake or absorption can quickly lead to symptoms including nervousness, incoordination, and muscle twitching around the face and ears. In advanced stages, animals may collapse, convulse, and die within hours if not treated, making grass tetany a veterinary emergency. For beef cattle on pasture, high-magnesium mineral should be provided in the late winter and spring to reduce grass tetany risk.
Sulfur
Sulfur is a component of several amino acids and B-vitamins. It is critical for rumen microbial growth and function in beef cattle. Sulfur deficiency is not common, but signs may include poor appetite, weight loss, and a dull appearance.
Cattle require about 0.15% sulfur in their diet DM (NASEM, 2016). In addition to meeting this requirement, maximum tolerable concentrations must also be considered. In high-concentrate diets (≤15% roughage), sulfur should not exceed about 0.3% of diet DM. In high roughage diets (≥40% roughage), cattle can tolerate up to approximately 0.5% sulfur (NASEM, 2016). Exceeding these levels increases the risk of toxicity.
Excess sulfur in the diet of beef cattle can interfere in their absorption of other minerals, particularly copper (Suttle, 2022). High sulfur intake is also commonly associated with polioencephalomalacia (PEM), a neurological disorder. Cattle with PEM may show signs like stargazing, head pressing, restlessness, and incoordination. Severe cases may result in collapse or death if not treated promptly. Excess sulfur often comes from both drinking water sources and feedstuffs, particularly corn byproducts like corn gluten feed and distillers grains.
TRACE MINERALS
Copper
Copper is a component of several different enzymes (McDowell, 2003). Cattle require 10 ppm of copper in their diet (NASEM, 2016). This requirement can, however, increase depending on the concentration of antagonists like molybdenum or sulfur present in other feedstuffs or drinking water provided to beef cattle. Breed differences may also influence copper requirements. Simmental and Charolais cattle may require 25%–50% more copper than Angus cattle under similar conditions (Ward, et al., 1995). Symptoms of copper deficiency include decreased growth, faded hair coat, and delayed or suppressed estrus (Underwood & Suttle, 1999).
Cobalt
Cobalt is not directly required by cattle tissues, but rumen microbes utilize cobalt to synthesize vitamin B12 (Greene, 2000). Vitamin B12 is essential for energy metabolism. Without adequate cobalt, cattle become less efficient at utilizing nutrients in their diet. Deficiency is more likely in young, growing cattle and can result in unthriftiness, reduced intake, poor growth, and decreased performance. Cattle require 0.15 ppm of cobalt in their diet (NASEM, 2016). Cobalt concentrations in forages are highly variable. Soil pH plays a major role in cobalt availability to plants, and forages grown on alkaline soils tend to be lower in cobalt (Underwood & Suttle, 1999).
Iodine
Iodine is a component of two thyroid hormones (McDowell, 2003). The first symptom of iodine deficiency is usually goiter (enlargement of the thyroid) in calves (Miller, et al., 1988). Other deficiency symptoms include calves born weak, hairless, or dead, and decreased reproductive performance in cows and bulls (McDowell, 2003). The requirement for iodine in the diet of beef cattle is recommended at 0.5 ppm (NASEM, 2016).
Iron
Iron is a component of proteins involved in oxygen transport and utilization (NASEM, 2016). Symptoms of iron deficiency include anemia, listlessness, and decreased feed intake. The requirement for iron is 50 ppm (NASEM, 2016). Drinking water and soil ingestion can be significant sources of iron for beef cattle (NASEM, 2016). Some forages may also be high in iron due to soil contamination.
Manganese
Manganese plays an important role in bone and cartilage formation and is essential for normal estrous cycling in beef cattle (Hidiroglou, 1979). Deficiencies can result in irregular heat cycles, reduced conception rates, early embryonic loss, abortions, and low birth weights. Calves born to manganese-deficient cows may exhibit “crooked calf syndrome,” characterized by enlarged joints and weak legs (Rojas, et al., 1965). Growing and finishing cattle require 20 ppm of manganese, while gestating and lactating cows require 40 ppm (NASEM, 2016).
Selenium
Selenium works as an antioxidant to protect cells from damage, support a strong immune system, and improve overall reproductive and calf health (Underwood & Suttle, 1999). White muscle disease is a common clinical symptom of selenium deficiency in calves that results in degeneration of skeletal and cardiac muscle (Underwood & Suttle, 1999). Adequate selenium status during late gestation is particularly important for calf vigor and colostrum quality. Most soil in Ohio is naturally low in selenium, which means forages grown here typically do not supply enough selenium to meet the needs of beef cattle. Thus, selenium supplementation is necessary in most cow–calf systems. However, selenium has a very narrow margin between deficiency and toxicity, so it must be fed carefully. Selenium is required at 0.1 ppm for beef cattle (NASEM, 2016). Additionally, the FDA limits added selenium in beef cattle diets to no more than 0.3 ppm of diet DM. Symptoms of selenium toxicity include lameness, deformed hooves, anorexia, and loss of hair from the tail (NASEM, 2016).
Zinc
Zinc supports skin and hoof integrity, immune response, and sperm production (McDowell, 2003). Cattle require roughly 30 ppm in the diet (NASEM, 2016). Signs of zinc deficiency include reduced feed intake, slower growth, impaired reproduction, weakened immune function, slow wound healing, and hair loss.
Conclusion
Proper mineral nutrition is essential for maintaining cattle health, performance, and reproductive success. No single mineral program is appropriate for every herd. Differences in forage type, soil mineral concentrations, water quality, cattle class, and stage of production all influence mineral requirements. Regular evaluation of forage, feed, and water, combined with consultation with a nutritionist, or Extension educator, can help producers develop mineral supplementation programs that optimize cattle health, reproduction, and productivity.
Additional Resources
- Mineral Nutrition for Beef Cattle
(youtube.com/playlist?list=PLc8qj1hOKoPhqZ10MYkk_hscEva5hYPdC)
References
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Hidiroglou, M. (1979). Manganese in ruminant nutrition. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 59(2), 217–236.
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