Schools can aid in fostering resilience in children. They can be very important environments for children who have impoverished and stressful home lives. What school factors are related to resilience?
The size of a school can matter, with smaller schools being protective of dropout rates (Zimmerman and Arunkumar, 1994). It is important for schools to have high academic standards (Rutter, 1985) and to be supportive. Schools should be supportive of the students (Alva, 1989; Clark, 1983; Luthar and Zigler, 1991; Werner and Smith, 1982; Zimmerman and Arunkumar, 1994) and the entire family (Clark, 1983). Support and friendly relationships with school peers is important (Alva, 1989; Clark, 1983; Garmezy and Rutter, 1983; Taylor, 1991; Werner and Smith, 1982), as is support from teachers and other staff members (Alva, 1989; Garmezy and Rutter, 1983; Werner, 1984; Werner, 1989a; Werner, 1990; Werner and Smith, 1982; Zimmerman and Arunkumar, 1994). The general ethos and climate of the school is important (Garmezy and Rutter, 1983) as school can provide a sense of success at a meaningful task (Pines, 1984), positive experiences (Clark, 1983; Pines, 1984), accomplishments (Werner, 1990), responsibility (Pines, 1984; Rutter, 1985; Werner, 1984), self-worth, self-esteem (Garmezy and Rutter, 1983; Pines, 1984), experience with discipline and orderliness (Luthar and Zigler, 1991; Rutter, 1985), and assistance with developing social and problem-solving skills (Zimmerman and Arunkumar, 1994). Schools also provide participation in extracurricular activities (Alva, 1989; Braddock, Royster, Winfield, and Hawkins, 1991; Pines, 1984; Rutter, 1985; Werner, 1984; Werner, 1989a; Werner and Smith, 1992).
The importance of teacher support cannot be underestimated. It is important for teachers to have high expectations and standards (Alva, 1989; Werner, 1984). Teachers who give ample praise and effective feedback enhance resilience in their students (Werner, 1984). These teachers are better able to effectively motivate their students. Teachers may also perform as a student's confidant (Werner, 1990) or role model (Werner, 1984, 1990). The importance of the teacher is clear. Werner (1990) found in her longitudinal study that the influence of preschool and primary teachers may have an everlasting impact on their students.
Rutter and his colleagues have probably done the most extensive study of schools and resilience (Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, and Ouston, with Smith, 1979). This study showed that the level of academic emphasis was important, especially if it was communicated by displaying student work and checking homework. The amount of time students spent in the library was also related to academic achievement and subsequent resilience.
This study found teacher behavior to be crucial as well. Students needed to feel that they could approach teachers with their personal problems. Teachers who started promptly and interacted with the entire class achieved better results.
Consistent group disciplinary standards produced fewer delinquent acts and better academic achievement. Granting rewards can make a difference, as can creating special occasions for the granting of rewards. Allowing students to participate in special events and giving them some responsibility for those special events contributed to academic achievement and subsequent resilience as well. Prizes for sports made for better attendance patterns. Allowing teachers to participate in or be represented when decisions about instructional or administrative matters were being discussed related to better student achievement.
Students' subjective rating of the ethos of the school was also related to achievement. The number of field trips the students took was related to achievement. A school being well maintained and nicely decorated was related to better student behavior.
The academic environment is important for resilience. Schools provide the academic environment. They can either undermine or enhance resilience.
The size of the school is important. Smaller schools are more protective. Larger schools can get that small school feel if students are treated as individuals and not numbers. They can also get the small school feel if classes are smaller and guidance counselors have reasonable loads.
High academic standards are protective. This cannot be stressed enough. Children from impoverished and stressful homes need high standards, not low standards. However, help needs to be provided to meet the standards. Tutoring and mentoring can be provided, as well as PTA' s that allow for participation of working parents and parents who may not have transportation to their meetings. The teachers also need to know how to teach a variety of learning styles.
The schools need to be supportive of the student and the family. This can be done by providing programs to assist the family and by linking the family up to additional services. And again, PTA's should allow for participation of working parents by having meetings at agreeable hours, providing child care, and providing transportation during their meetings. Or perhaps the meetings can take place in neighborhood centers. These are ways a school can be supportive of the student and family.
Peer relationships are important. They can impact the resilience that a child displays. The ethos that a teacher creates impacts whether or not a child will be socially accepted. Teachers need to work to ensure that all children have the opportunity to have positive interactions with their peers.
The general ethos of the school is important, as is the students' rating of the ethos. This atmosphere should be supportive. It should also be inclusive. All students whether rich or poor or whatever religious or ethnic group should feel welcome. The atmosphere should also be as conflict-free as possible.
Schools can provide accomplishments and success at meaningful tasks. These are so important to a student's self-esteem. They also help students to learn social skills and problem-solving skills. Extracurricular activities can provide these experiences as well as academic achievements. The extracurricular activities that students get involved in can be related to governance. These are important and meaningful activities. They help the ethos and the general decision-making. They also give students real responsibility, which is related to resilience.
This all contributes to a student's sense of self. Self-concept (self-esteem, self-worth) is important. Schools can do so much to increase a student's self-concept. Success at meaningful tasks should be rewarded. It also helps if specific feedback is given that delineates just how the student's abilities and characteristics contributed to the success.
Discipline is very important. The order and discipline that the students receive at school help them to learn to live in society. However, discipline practices should be applied evenly. Athletes and math whizzes should get the same discipline. All students, no matter what their ethnic or religious group, should get the same discipline practices.
Teachers are so very important for fostering resilience. They must have high standards for their students-all of their students. Very specific praise and feedback when it is due is important. The praise and feedback should be very direct in outlining just what characteristics and abilities of the student led to the success. How the teacher manages his or her classroom is also important. He or she must start on time and interact with all students evenly and justly. The teacher must act as a confidant. This is because these students may have chaotic lives. There may not be any other adults for them to count on. The teacher must be a role model. This is because the other adults in the student's life may not be appropriate role models. It is also important for teachers to take part in decision-making. They are on the front line every day working with the students. Allow them to participate in governance, especially if it is related to instruction or students.