Figure 1. Ground-water resources of Highland County, Ohio (adapted from Ground-Water Resources of Highland County map, J.J. Schmidt, 1991, ODNR Division of Water, illustration prepared by Carlos Lopez).
Water stored under the earth's surface is a plentiful, yet precious, resource in most areas of Ohio. Many human activities may affect the quality and quantity of this resource. However, the availability and quality of this resource are influenced directly by the properties of the geologic formations that hold water. The chemical and physical nature of these formations varies from area to area, creating a wide range of water yields and quality at different depths. This publication contains information about the ground-water resources underlying Highland County. Its purpose is to help the reader better understand the factors that influence the quantity and quality of ground water. An overview of the county's water resources is provided in the publication Water Resources of Highland County, AEX-480.36.
Much of the water-resource and water-quality terminology used in this publication is described in Extension Fact Sheets AEX 460 and 465. Ohio Extension publications are available through the Highland County office of Ohio State University Extension.
Geologic formations (e.g., sand, gravel, limestone, sandstone) have the ability to receive, store, and transmit water. In general, if a formation is capable of yielding enough water to support a well or spring, it is called an aquifer. The material from which the formation was originally made influences its ability to store and transmit water. For example, sand and gravel allow water to flow through easily. By comparison, shale, which originated from compacted layers of mud and clay, generally allows very little water to flow through it unless the shale is highly fractured.
Two primary aquifer formations are found in Highland County. The first is a Silurian-aged, consolidated carbonate aquifer composed of layers of limestone and dolomite. Limestone consists of fossilized sea shells, shell fragments, calcareous sand, and consolidated limy mud. Its main mineral is calcium carbonate, CaCO3. Dolomite is similar to limestone, but has few recognizable fossils; its main mineral is calcium, magnesium carbonate (Ca,Mg)CO3. Both limestone and dolomite are commonly referred to as limestone. The Silurian limestone, found primarily in the northeastern one-quarter of Highland County, usually is an adequate source of water as a result of fractures and solution channels that provide water storage and pathways for water distribution.
The second aquifer is of Ordovician age, and is also consolidated. It is a shaley-carbonate aquifer composed of interbedded layers of gray shale and thin limestone. The Ordovician shale and limestone found elsewhere in the county provide low yields because of its impermeable nature. Even though well yields typically are less than 3 gallons per minute, the bedrock formation is an important aquifer, and often provides the only source of domestic water supply for most of Highland County.
Ground water also occurs in lenses (or pockets) of sand and gravel deposited by glacial processes. In Highland County these deposits occur beneath the floodplain of Paint, Clear, Rocky Fork, and Lees creeks. Glacial till generally does not provide enough water to support a well. Yet, sand and gravel interbedded with glacial till may supply sufficient yield for some domestic uses.
The yield of a well, in gallons per minute (gpm), will vary considerably depending on the age and depth of the well, the diameter of the casing, well construction, pump capacity and age, and most importantly, properties of the geologic formation. The exact yield and depth of each well will depend on the properties of the geologic formation at the specific location of the well.
To support the development of ground-water availability assessments in Ohio, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR), Division of Water, maintains a statewide database of more than 700,000 well logs. The Water Resources Section of the Division manages this valuable database, which includes some information collected by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (Ohio EPA). Since 1948, well-log information has been collected to increase the understanding of the ground-water resources in Ohio (since the early 1950's, well drillers have been required by State law to file a construction log of each new well). Geologists and hydrogeologists continue to study the state's ground-water resources. As a result, Ohio is one of only a few states that has been completely mapped for ground-water availability (each county has a published, county-specific, ground-water map).
Estimates of the size, shape, geologic make-up and yields of aquifers have been mapped for Highland County. The map presented in Figure 1 is a generalized representation of the water-bearing formations underlying Highland County (adapted from map by J. J. Schmidt, 1991). This illustration is based on a hydrogeologic interpretation of the well-log data from Highland County and surrounding areas. It should be used only as a guide to understanding the ground-water resources in the county. The section below provides a brief description of the types of aquifers illustrated on the map in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Ground-water resources of Highland County, Ohio (adapted from Ground-Water Resources of Highland County map, J.J. Schmidt, 1991, ODNR Division of Water, illustration prepared by Carlos Lopez).
Yields of less than 3 gpm are common in the area illustrated as Area D. The interbedded shale and limestone bedrock yields only minimal domestic supplies at average depths of less than 100 feet. Deeper drilling is not recommended. Occasional lenses of sand and gravel may supply small domestic needs. Homeowners often rely upon cisterns and/or storage to provide for daily water demand. Dry wells are common.
The water level in any well does not remain constant, but changes in response to several factors. Rainfall distribution and amount may affect the ground-water recharge and discharge, and subsequently may affect the water level in area wells. Also, wells that are hydraulically connected to a stream may show fluctuations in the water level as the stream level changes. In some cases, depending upon the hydraulic properties of the geologic formation, the intense pumping of a well or number of wells, may cause the water level in some nearby wells to be lowered.
The ODNR Division of Water, in cooperation with the USGS, manages a statewide network of water-level observation wells. The network currently consists of 102 State-operated sites equipped with continuous water-level recorders. Water-level data are collected to provide a database for scientists and water resources managers to learn about short- and long-term water-level fluctuations in various aquifers.
While the ODNR Division of Water does not monitor ground-water levels in any well in Highland County, it does monitor wells in neighboring Fayette, Pike, and Ross counties. These wells provide some indication of how ground-water levels may change in similar aquifer materials in Highland County. Observation Well FA-1, located in Fayette County (6 miles west of Washington Court House), has been monitored since February 1946. Observation Well PI-2, located in Pike County (west of Piketon), has been continuously monitored from September 1969. Observation Well RO-7, located in Ross County (1 mile west of Bainbridge in Ross County), has been continuously monitored since February 1971. Well RO-7 supplies water for the Highland County Water Company. Well FA-1 is a limestone well 78 feet deep, and has a land surface elevation of 1010 feet above sea level. Wells PI-2 and RO-7 are sand and gravel wells, 60 and 67 feet deep, respectively, with land surface elevations of 550 and 740 feet above sea level, respectively.
Continuous daily ground-water level measurements at Observation Well FA-1 show a record low water-level measurement of 13.4 feet below the land surface in September 1982; and a high water-level measurement of 3.3 feet in April 1964. At Observation Well PI-2, a record low water-level measurement of 27.5 feet below land surface was recorded in February 1977; and a high water-level measurement of 9.5 feet recorded in June 1990. Measurements at Observation Well RO-7 indicate a record low water level of 45.9 feet below the land surface in December 1989; and a high water level of 20.9 feet in February 1971.
Various state and federal agencies have participated in programs to determine the ground-water quality in Ohio. For four wells and one spring in Highland County, water-quality data were available from the ODNR Division of Water. In Figure 1, these sites are noted as Chemical Analysis Sites 1 through 5, and are either municipal or industrial wells, or spring fed supplies.
The results from some of the chemical tests performed on these five wells are given in Table 1. The chemical constituents listed are total dissolved solids, hardness (as CaCO3), iron, manganese, chloride, sulfate, and fluoride. For comparison purposes, secondary drinking water-quality standards for these chemical constituents also are shown. These standards are established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) for public water systems for aesthetic reasons (taste, odor, appearance, etc.), and are not enforceable. These chemical constituents do not pose a risk to human health (see notes in Table 1). For private wells, there are no legally enforceable drinking water-quality standards other than total coliform, which is an indicator of bacteriological quality.
Ground water, whether obtained from bedrock or glacial deposits, may require some treatment. In some areas, water containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3, i.e., hard water), and iron concentrations greater than 0.3 ppm may require treatment for some uses (see notes in Table 1). Wells drilled into shale or limestone may produce water that contains objectionable quantities of hydrogen sulfide gas (rotten egg odor). Hydrogen sulfide concentrations as small as 1 ppm can result in an offensive, rotten egg odor and taste. In general, the probability of obtaining hydrogen sulfide in objectionable amounts increases with the depth drilled.
The information in Table 1 can be used as a guide to what one might expect from an existing or new well developed in similar geologic material in the county. This information provides a general representation of the quality of water at the time of sampling. The data provided in Table 1 were taken from a water sample obtained just after the well was put into operation. Even though three of these wells were developed in the sand and gravel underlying Highland County, and their depth ranges from 39 feet to 115, some variation exists in the concentrations of these chemical constituents. Just as well yields differ, water quality will vary depending on aquifer properties at the specific location of each well. One should not forget that many human activities also affect the quality of ground water (see AEX 465).
| Table 1. Chemical constituents of selected Highland County, Ohio, wells.1 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Well No. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | WQ Std2 |
| Well Depth (feet) | 115 | 250 | 39 | Spring3 | 41 | |
| Capacity (gpm) | na4 | 25 | na | na | na | |
| Depth to Bedrock (feet) | ne5 | 74 | ne | na | ne | |
| Water-Bearing Formation6 | G | LS | SG | SG | S | |
| Chemical Constituents7 | ||||||
| Total Dissolved Solids | 494 | 492 | 562 | na | 382 | 500 |
| Hardness (as CaCO3) | 300 | 490 | na | na | 322 | none8 |
| Iron | 1.75 | 1.1 | 1.43 | 0.42 | 0.80 | 0.3 |
| Manganese | 0.03 | 0.28 | 0.48 | 0.7 | 0.16 | 0.03 |
| Chloride | 43 | 1.0 | 34 | 0.05 | 16 | 250 |
| Sulfate | 0.0 | 23 | 74 | 42 | 38 | 250 |
| Fluoride | 0.89 | 0.4 | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.16 | 2 |
| 1. Data on these wells taken from map by J. J. Schmidt (1991); General location of each well is shown on Figure 1. | ||||||
| 2. USEPA Secondary Water Quality Standard. | ||||||
| 3. Sand and gravel deposits yielding water to springs. | ||||||
| 4. Data not available, not applicable, or constituent not tested. | ||||||
| 5. Well constructed in this formation did not encounter bedrock. | ||||||
| 6. S--Sand, LS--Limestone, SG--Sand and Gravel, G--Gravel. | ||||||
| 7. Units are parts-per-million (ppm); comments as per Interpreting Your Water Test Report (1988); Total Dissolved Solids: Concentrations above 500 ppm may cause adverse taste and deteriorate domestic plumbing and appliances. Use of water containing 500 ppm is common. Hardness: Primary concerns are that more soap is required for effective cleaning, a film may form on fixtures, fabrics may yellow, and scales may form in boilers, water heaters, and cooking utensils. Iron and Manganese: Iron concentrations greater than 0.3 ppm and manganese concentrations greater than 0.03 may cause brown or black stains on laundry, plumbing fixtures, and sinks. Metallic taste may be present which may affect the taste of beverages made from the water. Chloride: High concentrations may result in an objectionable, salty taste to water and the corrosion of plumbing in the hot water system. Sulfate: Concentrations in excess of 250 ppm may have a laxative effect on persons unaccustomed to the water. Also affects the taste of water and will form a hard scale in boilers and heat exchangers. Fluoride: At concentrations greater than 1.5 ppm, fluorosis (mottling) of teeth may occur. USEPA Primary Standard is 4 ppm. | ||||||
| 8. No USEPA Secondary Standard. | ||||||
The Highland County office of Ohio State University Extension can provide other publications about the county's water resources. Your Extension agent, the Highland County Health Department, and Ohio EPA (Southwest District Office, 401 East Fifth St., Dayton, OH 45402-2911) can provide information on well-water testing and drinking-water quality. Your local health department and county Extension office also will be able to provide information about proper well construction and requirements for private water systems. For example, State law requires that each new well constructed must be cased to a minimum depth of 25 feet. The health department issues permits and inspects new well construction.
The ODNR Division of Water--Water Resources Section (Fountain Square, Columbus, OH 43224) is an excellent source of information on ground water. Some of the information in this publication was summarized from the map Ground-Water Resources of Highland County, and other information available through the Division of Water. This map is much more detailed than that given in Figure 1, and the Water Resources Section can provide detailed information on ground-water availability and wells. The Water Resources Section also has conducted ground-water pollution potential studies for three counties adjacent to Highland (Clinton, Pike, and Ross; Pike is in progress). Although Highland County does not have a similar report available, some information in the Clinton and Ross reports may relate to portions of Highland. In regards to constructing a new well, the Division maintains a list of the State's registered and bonded well drillers. Hydrogeologists in the Division may be able to provide you with a list of well drillers who are familiar with geological conditions in your area, and provide technical assistance on proper well construction.
An additional excellent source of Ohio ground-water information is the USGS, Ohio District (975 W. Third Ave., Columbus, OH 43212). The USGS has conducted and published a number of ground- and surface-water investigations in Ohio. Additional information on Ohio's geological formations can also be obtained through the USGS, and through ODNR's Division of Geological Survey.
Flood of July 23, 1965, in the Vicinity of Hillsboro (Highland County), Ohio. 1966. ODNR Division of Water Miscellaneous Report 16.
Ground- and Surface-Water Terminology. 1994. L. C. Brown and L. P. Black. AEX 460. Ohio State University Extension.
Ground-Water Resources of Highland County. 1991. J. J Schmidt, ODNR Division of Water. (map).
Interpreting Your Water Test Report. 1988. D. Lundstrom and S. Fundingsland. AE-937, No. 13-AENG-10. North Dakota State University Extension Service.
Nonpoint Source Pollution: Water Primer. 1996. R. Leeds, L. C. Brown and N. L. Watermeier. AEX 465. Ohio State University Extension.
Ohio Ground-Water Quality. USGS National Water Summary--Ohio. 1986. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2325.
Ohio Ground-Water Resources. USGS National Water Summary--Ohio. 1984. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275.
Prevention of Stream Pollution by Distillery Refuse, Based on Investigations at Lynchburg, Ohio. 1906. H. Stabler. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 179.
Southwest Ohio Water Plan. 1976. ODNR Division of Water. Underground Water Resources (maps of various river basins). 1958-1962. ODNR Division of Water.
Water-Quality Assessment of Rattlesnake Creek Watershed, Ohio. 1979. K. F. Evans and R. L. Tobin. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 79-17.
Water Resources Data, Ohio, Water Year 1995. Volume 1. Ohio River Basin Excluding Project Data. 1996. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Data Report OH-95-1.
Water Resources of Highland County. 1995. K. T. Putnam, K. T. Ricker and L. C. Brown. AEX-480.36. Ohio State University Extension.
Water Testing. 1988. K. Mancl. AEX 314. Ohio State University Extension.
This publication was produced through the Ohio Water Resources Education Project, in cooperation with: ODNR Division of Water; Ohio EPA; USGS, Ohio District; and Ohio Department of Health (ODH). Project leaders are Larry C. Brown and Karen T. Ricker. Partial support for this publication was provided by these cooperating agencies and programs: Ohio State University Extension, Highland County; USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Highland County; Overholt Drainage Education and Research Program; and the Ohio Management Systems Evaluation Area project (USDA CSREES Grant No. 94-EWQI-1-9057).
The project leaders acknowledge the following reviewers: David Parry (USDA-NRCS, Highland County); Scott Golden (Environmental Health, ODH); Steve Hindall (USGS, Ohio District); and Dave Cashell (ODNR Division of Water).
A special thanks to Pamela J. Barrett and Phyllis Deatley (Highland County Extension Office Secretaries) for help in manuscript preparation, Carlos Lopez and Kate Weber (Undergraduate Engineering Assistants) for illustration preparation, and Kim Wintringham (Associate Editor, Section of Communications and Technology, Ohio State University Extension) for editorial and graphic production.
All educational programs conducted by Ohio State University Extension are available to clientele on a nondiscriminatory basis without regard to race, color, creed, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, age, disability or Vietnam-era veteran status.
Keith L. Smith, Associate Vice President for Ag. Adm. and Director, OSU Extension.
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